The story of photovoltaics and how it all began in 1839, as a coincidence, just like
many other discoveries in the past, such as penicillin, is very interesting reading.
The story will take you through some facts, persons and events, which have marked
the history of photovoltaics.
"Being desirous of obtaining a more suitable high resistance for use at the Shore
Station in connection with my system of testing and signalling during the submersion
of long submarine cables, I was induced to experiment with bars of selenium - a
known metal of very high resistance. I obtained several bars, varying in length from
5 cm to 10 cm, and of a diameter from 1.0 mm to 1.5 mm. Each bar
was hermetically sealed in a glass tube, and a platinum wire projected from each end
for the purpose of connection..."
(Source: Willoughby Smith,
Letter to Latimer Clark,
Wharf Road, 4th February 1873) [1]
MILESTONES
90 years ago - in 1921 Albert Einstein was awarded a Nobel Prize for explanation of the PV-effect.
70 years ago - in 1941, the first silicon monocrystalline solar cell was constructed.
60 years ago - in 1951, the first germanium solar cells have been made.
1839 - 1899
DISCOVERY OF BASIC PHENOMENA AND PROPERTIES OF PV MATERIALS
Discovery of photovoltaic effect
A physical phenomenon allowing light-electricity conversion - the photovoltaic
effect, was discovered in 1839 by the French physicist,
Alexandre
Edmond Becquerel. Experimenting with metal electrodes and electrolyte he
discovered that conductance rises with illumination.
First solar cells
Willoughby Smith
discovered the photovoltaic effect in selenium in 1873.
In 1876, with his student Richard E. Day,
William G. Adams
discovered that illuminating a junction between selenium and platinum also has a
photovoltaic effect. These two discoveries formed a foundation for the first
selenium solar cell construction, which was built in 1877. Charles Fritts
first described them in detail in 1883.
Other interesting phenomena
In 1887, Heinrich
Hertz discovered that ultraviolet light changes the voltage at which sparks
between two metal electrodes would be initiated.
1900 - 1949
THEORETICAL EXPLANATION OF THE PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT AND FIRST SOLAR CELLS
Theoretical explanation of the photovoltaic effect
The author of the most comprehensive theoretical work about the
photovoltaic effect was
Albert Einstein,
who described the phenomenon in 1904. For his theoretical explanation, he was
awarded a Nobel Prize in 1921. Einstein's theoretical explanation was proven in
practice by
Robert
Millikan's experiment in 1916.
The first silicon solar cells
In 1918, a Polish scientist Jan Czochralski [2]
discovered a method for monocrystalline silicon production, which enabled
monocrystalline solar cell production. The first silicon monocrystalline solar
cell was constructed in 1941.
The photovoltaic effect in other materials
In 1932, the photovoltaic effect in cadmium-selenide was observed. Nowadays, CdS is
among the important materials for solar cell production.
1950 - 1969
INTENSIVE SPACE RESEARCH
Intensive laboratory researches
In 1951, the first germanium solar cells were made. Dan Trivich of Wayne
State University made some theoretical calculations on solar cell efficiency with
different materials, and on solar spectrum wavelengths in 1953. In 1954, the RCA
Laboratories published a report on CdS photovoltaic effect. AT&T organised
several demonstrations on solar cells functioning in the same year. Bell's
Laboratories published the results of the solar cell operation with 4.5 %
efficiency. The efficiency was increased to 6 % within a few months.
The first satellites and solar powered cars
In 1955, the preparation of satellite energy supply by solar cells began.
Western Electric put up for sale commercial licenses for solar cell production.
Hoffman Electronics-Semiconductor Division introduced a commercial photovoltaic
product with 2 % efficiency for US$ 25 per cell with 14 mW peak
power. The energy cost was US$ 1,785 per W. In 1957, Hoffman Electronics
introduced a solar cell with 8 % efficiency. A year later, in 1958, the same
company introduced a solar cell with 9 % efficiency. The first radiation-proof
silicon solar cell was produced for the purposes of space technology in the same
year. On 17th March, the first satellite powered by solar cells,
Vanguard I, was launched. The system ran continuously for 8 years. Two other
satellites, Explorer III and Vanguard II, were launched by the Americans, and
Sputnik III by the Russians. The first telephone repeater powered by solar cells
was built in Americus, Georgia. In 1959, Hoffman Electronics introduced
commercially available solar cells with 10 % efficiency. The Americans
launched the satellites, Explorer VI, with photovoltaic field of 9,600 cells and
Explorer VII. In 1960, Hoffman Electronics introduced yet another solar cell with
14 % efficiency. The first sun-powered automobile was demonstrated in Chicago,
Illinois on August 31st 1955.
The first photovoltaic conferences
A United Nations conference on solar energy application in developing countries took
place in 1961. The Defence Studies Institute organised the first photovoltaic
conference during the same year, in Washington. In 1962, the first commercial
telecommunications satellite, Telstar, developed by Bell Laboratories, was launched.
The photovoltaic system peak power for satellite power supply was 14 W.
The second photovoltaic conference took place in Washington.
The first solar modules
In 1963, Sharp Corporation developed the first usable photovoltaic module from
silicon solar cells. The biggest photovoltaic system at the time, the 242 W
module field, was set up in Japan. A year later, in 1964, Americans applied a
470 W photovoltaic field in the Nimbus space project.
Intensive research on photovoltaic technologies for
extraterrestrial application
In 1965, the Japanese scientific programme for Japanese satellite launch commenced.
The following year, in 1966, an astronomical observatory with 1 kW peak power
photovoltaic module field was tracked in the earthly orbit. In 1968, the OVI-13
satellite with two CdS panels was launched.
The first bigger company
In 1969, Roger Little established Spire Corporation, which became and still is an
important producer of solar cells production equipment.
1970 - 1979
ESTABLISHMENT OF LARGE PHOTOVOLTAIC COMPANIES
The first application of photovoltaic technologies on Earth
In 1972, Solar Power Corporation was established. The company started commercial
business in 1973, when a sales office in Braintree, Massachusetts was
opened [3].
The French implemented a CdS photovoltaic
system, enabling an educational TV programme broadcast in the province of Niger in
1972. A year later, in 1973, Solarex Corporation was established. At Delaware
University a photovoltaic-thermal hybrid system, Solar one, one of the first
photovoltaic systems for domestic application, was developed. Besides the
photovoltaic system, the system also incorporated also a warmth keeper of
phase-changeable materials. A silicon solar cell of US$ 30 per W was produced.
In 1974, the Japanese Sunshine project commenced. A year later, in 1975, Solec
International and Solar Technology International were established. The American
government encouraged JPL Laboratories to conduct research in the field of
photovoltaic systems for application on Earth the same year.
The first photovoltaic systems for the Third World rural areas
In 1976, under NASA protection, Lewis Research Center (LeRC) commenced photovoltaic
system installations for application on Earth, which continued until 1985 and later,
from 1992 until 1995. The systems were meant for refrigerators, telecommunication
equipment, medical equipment, lighting and water pumping power supply, as well as
for other applications. NASA LeRC introduced several demonstration projects.
The first amorphous silicon solar cell was developed by RCA Laboratories the same
year.
The first applications for the supply of technologically
sophisticated devices on Earth
In 1977, the world production of photovoltaic modules exceeded 500 kW. NASA
LeRC commenced implementing photovoltaic systems in six meteorological stations in
different locations within USA. NASA LeRC introduced additional trial demonstration
projects. Solar Energy Research Institute, located in Golden, Colorado launched
its operation. In an American Indian reservation, NASA LeRC set up a 3.5 kW
system - the first system ever to satisfy the demands of the entire village. It was
used for water pumping and power supply of 15 households. In 1979, ARCO Solar of
Camarillo, California, built the biggest solar cell and photovoltaic systems
production plant premises at that time. NASA LeRC built a 1.8 kW water pumping
photovoltaic system in Burkina Faso. The system peak power was enlarged to
3.6 kW the same year. In Mt. Laguna, California, a trial 60 kW hybrid
diesel-photovoltaic system was built for radar station power supply.
1980 - 1989
LARGE STANDALONE SYSTEMS INSTALLATIONS
Large standalone photovoltaic systems
Many important events in the field of photovoltaics appeared in 1980. ARCO Solar
was the first to produce photovoltaic modules with peak power of over 1 MW per
year. A trial photovoltaic system installation was built in the centre of the
volcano observatory in Hawaii. A new company, BP, appeared in the market.
On behalf of Ford, Bacon & Davis, Utah, Wasatch Electric built a 105.6 kW
system in the State of Utah. The modules integrated into the system were produced by
Motorola, ARCO Solar and Spectrolab.
The facility is still
operating [4]
and is being maintained by a National
Park Service contractor and supplies power to the headquarters of Natural Bridges
National Monument in Southern Utah. A year later, in 1981, NASA LeRC began to build
systems for vaccine refrigerator power supply at 30 locations around the globe
(the project was closed in 1984). Solar Challenger, the first plane ever powered by
solar energy, took off. A system with peak power of 90.4 kW, with modules
produced by Solar Power Corporation, was built in Square Shopping Center in
Lovington, New Mexico. A similar system was built for Beverly High School in
Beverly, Massachusetts. A seawater desalination system with 10.8 kW peak
power was built in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia the same year. Helios Technology, the
oldest European solar cells producer, was established. The world production of
photovoltaic modules exceeded 9.3 MW in 1982. Solarex established Solarex
Aerospace division the same year. At the Vienna conference, NASA LeRC introduced a
trial case of a terrestrial satellite reception station and public lighting
electricity supply. Volkswagen began testing photovoltaic systems placed on vehicle
roofs with 160 W peak power for vehicle start-up. Solarex production premises
rooftops in Frederick, Maryland, were equipped with photovoltaic systems with
200 kW peak power. ARCO Solar built a 1 MW PV power plant with modules
on over 108 double-axis trackers in Hesperia, California.
Solar cars
A year later, in 1983, the worldwide production of photovoltaic modules exceeded
21.3 MW peak power, with product value of US$ 250 million. A Solar Trek
vehicle with a 1 kW photovoltaic system drove 4,000 km in the twenty days
of the Australia Race. The maximum speed was 72 km/h and the average speed was
24 km/h. The same year, the vehicle surpassed the distance of 4,000 km
between Long Beach, California, and Daytona Beach, Florida, in 18 days. Solarex
Corporation bought amorphous cells production technology from cells producer RCA
and built its own trial power plant in Newtown, Pennsylvania. ARCO Solar built a
6 MW photovoltaic power plant as a subsystem of the public electricity grid
for a Pacific Gas and Electric Company application in California. The system
satisfied the demand of 2,000 to 2,500 households. Solar Power Corporation built
four standalone photovoltaic systems for the needs of a village in Tunisia with
total peak power of 31 kW per system. A 1.8 kW photovoltaic system was
built to satisfy the needs of the local hospital in Guyana. The applications,
such as vaccine refrigerators, indoor lighting, ordination lighting and radio
appliances, were powered by the system. The system was planned and built by NASA
LeRC and Solarex. A similar, yet more powerful, photovoltaic system of 4 kW
was set up in Ecuador. A 1.8 kW photovoltaic system was set up in Zimbabwe
for the same purpose. Solarex Corporation merged with Amoco Solar Company, owned
by Standard Oil Company.
The first amorphous solar module
In 1984, a 1 MW photovoltaic power plant began to operate in Sacramento,
California. ARCO Solar introduced the first amorphous modules. NASA LeRC placed
seventeen photovoltaic systems to satisfy the demands of the local schools, lighting,
medical equipment and water pumping in Gabon. BP Solar Systems, with EGS donations,
built a 30 kW photovoltaic system connected to public electric grid nearby
Southampton, Great Britain. Solarex Corporation closed the equipment supply for a
photovoltaic system for Georgetown University Intercultural Center demands, with
total peak power of 337 kW and 4,464 modules. BP Solar bought Monosolar
thin-film division, Nortek, Inc.
Highly efficient silicon solar cells and thin-film solar
module
In 1985, researchers at the University of New South Wales in Australia constructed
a solar cell with more than 20 % efficiency. BP built a power plant in Sydney,
Australia and shortly afterwards, another one nearby Madrid. A photovoltaic system
was built in Sulawesi, Indonesia for the purposes of a terrestrial satellite station.
In 1986, ARCO Solar introduced a G-4000, the first commercial thin film photovoltaic
module.
Solar car races - a new challenge for research labs
In the Pentax World Solar Challenge 1987 race through Australia, a General Motors
Sunracer vehicle won with an average speed of 71 km/h. In 1988, the fourth
Tour de Sol race of 350 km in Switzerland and Austria took place. The vehicle
categories included photovoltaic supplied vehicles, additional pedal vehicles,
commercial photovoltaic supplied vehicles and electric vehicles without
photovoltaic supply. The overall award fund was worth SFR 140,000.
Third World projects and new production capacities
Solarex received the United Nations tender to supply a 50 kW system for UN
research project requirements in Pakistan. ARCO Solar increased the thin film
system production capacities in Camarillo, California to 7 MW per year. ARCO
Solar opened production in Japan and Germany. BP Solar received a thin film
technology patent for solar cells production in 1989.
1990 - 1999
LARGE PHOTOVOLTAIC COMPANIES CO-OPERATION
Large-scale solar cell producers
In 1990, Energy Conversion Devices Inc. (ECD) and Canon Inc. established a joint
company, United Solar Systems Corporation, for solar cell production. Siemens bought
ARCO Solar and established Siemens Solar Industries. Solar Energy Research
Institute (SERI) was renamed to National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL).
A year later, in 1991, BP Solar Systems was renamed to become BP Solar
International (BPSI) and became an independent unit within the British Petroleum
Group. In 1992, a photovoltaic system of 0.5 kW was placed in Antarctica for
the laboratory, lighting, personal computers and microwave oven power requirements.
A silicon solar cell with 20 % efficiency was patented. In 1994, the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), an important institution in the field of
renewable energy sources in USA, launched its website on the Internet. DOE built
several trial systems for the needs of agriculture, hospitals, lighting, water
pumping, etc. in Brazil. ASE GmbH, from Germany, purchased Mobil Solar Energy
Corporation technology and established ASE Americas, Inc. A year later, in 1995,
the first international fund for the promotion of photovoltaic system
commercialisation was established, which supported projects in India. The World
Bank and the Indian Renewable Energy Sources Agency sponsored projects in
co-operation with Siemens Solar. In 1996, BP Solar purchased APS production
premises in California, and announced a commercial CIS solar cells production. Icar,
the plane powered by solar energy, with 3,000 solar cells in total on its surface of
21 m2 flew over Germany.
The world biggest photovoltaic system plans
In 1997, Greece agreed to sponsor the first 5 MW of a total planned 50 MW
photovoltaic system on Crete. Due to a misunderstanding among investors, the system
was not realised. Activities, which will result in 36,400 50 W systems within
the next three years, started in Indonesia. In 1999, Solar Cells, Inc. (SCI), True
North Partners, and LLC of Phoenix, Arizona merged to become First Solar, LLC.
2000 - 2009
RENEWABLE ENERGY AND STOCK EXCHANGE
Photovoltaics and stock exchanges in Europe
Mostly in Germany, some photovoltaic and renewable energy resources companies have
shares listed on the stock exchange. Capital mergers in Germany led to the
establishment of large photovoltaic corporations. During 2000 and 2001 production
of Japanese manufacturers increased significantly. Sharp and Kyocera each produce
modules with peak power equivalent to the annual consumption in Germany, the most
demanding European market. Sanyo is close as well.
HELIOS flight
After many years of research and trial flights, the HELIOS solar powered plane,
developed by NASA and AeroVironment Inc., broke the height record on
13th August 2001. HELIOS reached a height of almost 30,000 meters.
NASA's solar powered airplanes, predecessors of Helios
Gossamer Albatros, Pathfinder-Plus and Centurion
(credit: NASA Dryden Flight Research Center)
Large photovoltaic plants in Germany
During the 2002 - 2003 period, several large power plants were built in
Germany. On April 29th 2003 the world's largest photovoltaic plant at
that time was connected to the public grid in Hemau near Regensburg (Bavaria),
Germany. The peak power of the "Solarpark Hemau" plant is 4 MW. Due to
the “EEC” renewable energy law many other large systems of up
to 5 MW were built in Germany in the year 2004. Some of them are Geiseltalsee,
Leipzig, Bürstadt, Göttelborn solar parks and others.
Notes
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[1]
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For more information about submarine cables
history see: Cookson, G.,
The Cable: The Wire that
Changed the World ;
Tempus, 2007.
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[2]
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Method for monocrystalline silicon production is named after Jan Czochralski. For brief description of this
method please see technology section.
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[3]
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Lee, K.: personal communication (February 2008).
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[4]
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Young, G.: personal communication (January 2011).
Description of this project is available
here.
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HISTORY OF SCIENCE
Web Sites
Stanford SOLAR Center
- This site provides teachers, students, and the interested public with the latest
information about the Sun. It also includes section about ancient
observatories.
The Center for
Archaeoastronomy
- Official website of the Center for Archaeoastronomy founded at the University
of Maryland.
Journals
SOURCES AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Books
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Perlin, J.: From Space to Earth: The Story of Solar Electricity;
Aatec Publications, 1999, ISBN 0-674-01013-2.
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Butti, K., Perlin, J.: Golden Thread:
Twentyfive
Hundred Years of Solar Architecture and Technology; Cheshire Books, 1980, ISBN 978-0917352089.
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Cookson, G.,
The Cable: The Wire that Changed the World;
Tempus, 2007, ISBN 978-0752439037.
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Lang, K. R.: A Companion to Astronomy and Astrophysics:
Chronology and Glossary with Data Tables , Springer, 2006, ISBN 978-0387307343.
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Mouchot, A.:
Die Sonnenwärme und ihre industriellen Anwendungen;
Olynthus Verlag, 1987, ISBN 3-907175-08-5.
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Papers
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Green, M. A.: The path to 25 % silicon solar cell efficiency: History of
silicon cell evolution; Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications,
vol. 17, issue 3, pp. 183-189, 2009.
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Brown, W. C.: The History of Wireless Power Transmission; Solar Energy, Volume 56, No.1, pp 3-21, 1996.
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Spencer, L. C.: A Comprehensive Review of Small Solar Powered Heat Engines: Part I. A History of Solar-powered Devices up to 1950;
Solar Energy, Volume 43, No.4, pp 191-196, 1989.
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Spencer, L. C.: A Comprehensive Review of Small Solar Powered Heat Engines: Part II. Research since 1950- "Conventional"
Engines up to 100 kW;
Solar Energy, Volume 43, No.4, pp 197-210, 1989.
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Spencer, L. C.: A Comprehensive Review of Small Solar Powered Heat Engines: Part III. Research since 1950- "Unconventional"
Engines up to 100 kW;
Solar Energy, Volume 43, No.4, pp 211-225, 1989.
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Web Sites