Photovoltaic modules

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Bifacial modules - Poulek Solar Co.Ltd

Photovoltaic modules
(source/copyright: Solar-fabrik AG pictures 1,2 from left to the right - Poulek Solar Co.Ltd. picture 3 - Sunways AG picture 4)

In photovoltaic (solar) module light energy converts into electricity. A photovoltaic module is the basic element of each photovoltaic system. It consists of many jointly connected solar cells. According to the solar cell technology we distinguish monocrystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous solar modules. Detailed description on solar cell technologies you will find in the technologies section. Most commercial crystalline modules consist of 36 or of 72 cells. Solar cells are connected and placed between a tedlar plate on the bottom and a tempered glass on the top. Placed between the solar cells and the glass there is a thin usualy EVA foil. Solar cells are interconnected with thin contacts on the upper side of the semiconductor material, which can be seen as a metal net on the solar cells. The net must be as thin as possible allowing a disturbance free incidence photon stream. Usually a module is framed with an aluminium frame, occasionally with a stainless steel or with a plastic frame. Special flexible modules are designed for use on boats that can be walked upon without causing any damage to the modules. The typical crystalline modules power ranges from several W to up to 200 W/module. Some producers produce preassembled panels with several 100 Wp. Over its estimated life a photovoltaic module will produce much more electricity then used in it's production and a 100 W module will prevent the emission of over two tones of CO₂.

Photovoltaic modules - features and applications

Module construction

Photovoltaic module consists of transparent front side, encapsulated solar cells and backside. As front side material (superstrate) usualy low-iron, tempered glass is used. For some special module types some other front side materials are used like DuPont™ Tefzel® or non-tempered glass for example.

DuPont™ Tefzel® Properties and applications.

You may also learn more about some front- and backside materials used in photovoltaic modules if you visit DuPont web site.

Required mechanical characteristics (impact resistance etc.) and module qualification procedures are defined in international standards, for details please see standards section.

Backside is usualy non transparent, most common used material is PVF (registered trade mark - Tedlar®). Transparent back side is also possible - transparent back side materials are often used in modules that are integrated into buildings envelope (facade or roof), see also BIPV section.

Between glass and back side solar cells encapsulated with encapsulation material are placed. Many different materials can be used for encapsulation but two most often used materails are EVA (ethylene-vinyl-acetate) and PVB (polyvinyl-butiral). PVB is also used in safety windscreens in automotive industry. It is used as encapsulation material in transparent modules. EVA is used for encapsulation of cells in standard modules.

Technical data

The most important module parameters include a short circuit current, an open circuit voltage and a nominal voltage at 1000 W/m² solar radiation, current and rated power at 1000 W/m² solar radiation value. Module parameters are measured at standard test conditions (STC) - solar radiation 1000 W/m², air mass (AM) 1,5 and temperature 25^oC. The following parameters can usualy be found in module datasheets:

Peak power - W_p
Open cirquit voltage - V_oc
Short cirquit current - I_sc
Voltage at maximum power - V_mp
Current at maximum power - I_mp
Current at battery operating voltage - I
Nominal operating cell temperature (NOCT) - ^oC
Wind loading of surface pressure - N/m² (km/h)
Impact resistance - mm at km/h
Maximum system voltage - V_max
Storage and operating temperature - ^oC

Monocrystalline solar module Polycrystalline solar module

Photovoltaic modules with monocrystaline solar cells - left
(Source/copyright IEA PVPS Task2)

Modules with polycristalline solar cells - right
(photo: Denis Lenardic)

Module efficiency

Commercial crystalline photovoltaic modules efficiency typically ranges from 10 to 13 %. However, you must be aware, that the solar cell efficiency doesn’t equal the module efficiency. The module efficiency is usually 1 to 3 % lower than the solar cell efficiency due to glass reflection, frame shadowing, higher temperatures etc. Table 1 represent some features of different solar module types. Amorphous modules have the lowest price, yet their lifetime is short and their efficiency is up to 8 % only.

Temperature coefficients

All electrical parameters of solar module depends on temperature. The most common temperature coefficients that are usualy available in module data sheets are (typical values are valid for crystalline silicon solar cells):

α (I_sc) typical values between +0.03%/K and +0.1%/K
β (V_oc) typical values between -0.33%/K and -0.40%/K
γ (P_mpp) typical values between -0.40%/K and -0.50%/K.

Values are important in design stage of PV system and they should be considered as important parameters related to the PV system design.

Additional information

How to choose wire crossection for interconnection of photovoltaic modules?

If you are interested in solar trackers, bifacial trackers, trough concentrators systems then please proceed to trackers and concentrators page.

Photovoltaic module I-U characteristics

Photovoltaic module power

Solar module characteristics

Transparent solar modules

Transparent crystalline solar modules are produced with transparent Tedlar back side, on the other side is transpareny by amorphous modules usualy achieved by microperforation of the modules. With special production procedure polycristalline semitransparent solar cells can also be produced.

Transparent solar cell - Sunways AG

Transparent solar module - left, and transparent solar cell - right
(source/copyright: Sunways AG).

Flexible solar modules

Front and back side of flexible modules, with crystalline solar cells, are most often produced from plastic materials like plexiglas® or makrolon® for example. Between front and back side encapsulated cells are located. Flexible solar modules can be produced with transparent or with opaque back side. Back side in different colours is also an option. Makrolon is one of the most common plastic materials used. Learn more how useful makrolon is (german language only)...

Amorphous flexible modules are also available. Most often metal substrate is used - modules can be used as roof or facade cover.

Photovoltaic modules used as roof tiles

Some advanced sollutions were presented in past few years. The most known is probably the Pfleiderer Roof Tile "Terra-Piatta® - Solar" produced by Pfleiderer-Dachziegelwerke GmbH was awarded with the German Design Award 2002. The Design Award of the Federal Republic of Germany, is the highest official design honour of the state and is lent by the Rat für Formgebung/German Design Council on behalf of the Federal Ministry for Economics and Technology.

Most common form of photovoltaic modules as roof cover are laminates, because of simple construction and low cost. More...

Solar roof tile "Terra-Piatta®-Solar"

Solar roof tile Terra-Piatta Solar - left and roof with photovoltaic roof tiles - right
(source/copyright: Pfleiderer Dachziegel)

Solar module	Efficiency	Lifetime	Price	Power/ Area
Monocrystalline-	10 - 13%	25 years 90% rated power 30 years 80% rated power typical	high	high
Polycrystalline-	9 - 13%	10 years 90% rated power 25 years 80% rated power typical	moderate	moderate
Amorphous-	6 - 8%	10 years	low	low

Monocrystalline-, polycristalline- and amorphous modules features

Solar modules related web sites
	Fotovoltaikshop GmbH - basic data for more than 1400 modules and some inverters available on-line. Languages:
	Solarbuzz - Solar energy portal - useful information about solar energy economics, like module prices, module and cell producers etc. Languages: Webmaster's choice - the most comprehensive photovoltaic economics related information on the web.
	Database of Photovoltaic Module Performance Parameters - A Microsoft Access database of PV module performance parameters has been developed and is continuously updated on this site. This database contains performance and physical data as specified by manufacturers, plus other measured parameters required to implement the module performance model developed by Sandia National Laboratories and documented elsewhere. Languages: Webmaster's choice - the most comprehensive photovoltaic module technical data overwiev available on the web.

Module mounting structures
	Krinner - Ground screws for photovoltaic systems. Languages:
	DOMA-Drehfundamente - Ground screws for photovoltaic systems. Languages:
	Schletter GmbH - Photovoltaic module mounting structures for facade and roof mounting of solar modules. Languages: Webmaster's choice - mounting structures for photovoltaic modules explained in detail. Lots of useful documents available as pdf files (most information in German language).
	UniRac Inc. - UniRac, Inc., manufactures photovoltaic (PV) mounting structures for every type of array of all makes and models of modules. Languages: Webmaster's choice - detailed description, mounting instructions and price lists available on-line.
	Professional Solar Products - Manufacturer of Photovoltaic (PV) mounting systems and a variety of structural roof attachments designed for the professional installer. Languages: Webmaster's choice - many useful files available as pdf files.
	Direct Power and Water Corp. - We design and manufacture standard and custom top-of-pole, side-of-pole, and roof/ground solar mounts. For roof-top installations we manufacture the Power-Rail™, Power-Grid™, and the non-penetrating Power-Tube CRS™ mounting systems. Languages:
	Two Seas Metalworks - Mounting structures for standalone mounting and other applications. Languages:
Photovoltaic module testing institutions
	TÜV Rheinland Berlin Brandenburg - The work of TÜV is animated by the conviction that social and industrial development cannot be achieved without technical progress. Proceeding from 125 years of tradition and experience, our market activities are concentrated especially in the five fields of Industrial Services, Mobility and Transport, Product Safety and Quality, Education and Consulting, and New Business Development. Languages:
	Photovoltaic Testing Laboratory - PTL - Photovoltaic Testing Laboratory at Arizona State University was established in 1991. The main tasks are: develop a hands-on training laboratory for graduate and undergraduate students, provide state-of-the-art laboratory equipment with which faculty, staff, and students could perform research; establish the capability to perform qualification testing per all relevant national and international standards, including Underwriters Laboratories (UL) 1703; provide PV module qualification testing services to the PV industry; provide related applied research to the PV industry etc. Languages:
	JRC ISPRA - Located in Ispra (Italy), the Institute for Environment and Sustainability (IES) is one of the institutes that constitute the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission. In line with the JRC mission, the aim of IES is to provide scientific and technical support to European Union strategies for the protection of the environment contributing to a sustainable development. Languages:
	LEEE TISO Centre - The TISO testing centre for PV components has, since 1991, carried out systematic tests, under real operating conditions, on the most important modules currently on the market. The technical information supplied by the manufacturers of the modules are generally not precise or complete enough for the above questions to be answered reliably. During the tests carried out at TISO, the modules are exposed for a one-year period to real conditions. Languages: Webmaster's choice - interesting PV module and BOS producers link collection.

Literature and more information

Agro, S.C., Tucker, R.T.: Development of New Low-Cost, High-Performance, PV Module Encapsulant/Packaging Materials; 29^th IEEE PV Specialists Conference New Orleans, Louisiana May 20-24, 2002 (281 kB)
Osterwald, C.R., Anderberg, A., Rummel, S., Ottoson, L.: Degradation Analysis of Weathered Crystalline-Silicon PV Modules; Specialized Technology Resources, Inc. Enfield, Connecticut; March 2004, NREL/SR-520-35683 (595 kB)
King, D.L., Quintana, M.A., Kratochvil, J.A., Ellibee, D.E., HansenMeyer, B.R.: Photovoltaic Module Performance and Durability Following Long-Term Field Exposure; Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, (448 kB).
Measuring Photovoltaic Cell I-V Characteristics with the Model 2420 3A SourceMeter® Instrument.